International Olympic Committee History, Culture and Social Theory

Introduction Olympic Games have evolved into a significant movement that affects development of societies. Olympic movement is now seen as one of the most potent movements which embrace the entire globe.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on International Olympic Committee: History, Culture and Social Theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More First, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) was an organization which was responsible for the Olympic Games holding. At present, it includes a variety of bodies with various responsibilities. The history and culture of this organization can illustrate the practical use of social theories which can help trace the trends which govern the development of organizations as well as societies. Thus, there are various approaches to understanding of organizations. Functionalist theory is prevailing as it best explains certain trends. However, the development of the IOC confirms that con flict and figurational theories can be applicable as well. It is necessary to take a closer look at the development of the IOC to consider major trends affecting development of sport organizations and societies. The history of the IOC and functionalist theory The nineteenth century Creation of the IOC is closely connected with the name of the famous French aristocrat, Pierre de Coubertin. In 1890, he became a secretary-general of the â€Å"federation of French sports clubs† (Nauright 2012, p. 23). Pierre de Coubertin became one of the representatives of the country on the world arena in the sphere of sports.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Thus, he along with the Englishman Charles Herbert and the American William Sloane became an organizer of the International Paris Conference which took place in 1894. The conference was attended by 78 delegations, which represented eight countries. Interestingly, the initial title of the conference was â€Å"The Study and Diffusion of the Principles of Amateurism and the Revival of the Olympics†, however Coubertin changed the title of this conference to â€Å"Conference on the Re-Establishment of the Olympic Games† (as cited in Nauright 2012, p. 24). The conference resulted in the announcement of creation of the International Olympic Committee on June 23, 1894. The first games of the new era were held in 1896 in Athens (Nauright 2012, p. 24). From then on, the IOC have been developing and spreading its influence. Coubertin saw the organization as a regulatory body of the Olympic Games. He wanted to make sports (or at least) Olympic Games unaffected by any political influences (Liu 2007). However, this proved to be impossible as the organization was never free from politics. In the first place, the organization includes members coming from different countries. Admittedly, people tend to be affect ed by their political views when making decisions. Different countries have often been in conflict with each other. This has often led to conflicts within the IOC and political views of its members as well as political agendas of some countries affected decisions made by the organization. For example, the organization excluded South Africa completely due to the apartheid, which was considered to some extent as vindictive by the some members of the organization.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on International Olympic Committee: History, Culture and Social Theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More At the same time, one of the major principles of the organization is equality of all people and nations irrespective of any â€Å"non-sport† factors. Therefore, it is manifest that politics and sports have often been interconnected. The twentieth century The significant characteristic features of the organization wer e revealed in the twentieth century. Liu (2007) notes that the IOC often made decisions that could not be regarded as free from politics. For instance, Germany, Austria, Turkey, Hungary and Bulgaria were barred from the games in 1920. This was the organization’s reaction to the participation of these countries in the First World War (Liu 2007). Hitler tried to exploit the Olympic movement to promote his ideas concerning the future of the German people and his party. South Africa was also excluded from the movement due to the country’s apartheid laws. Obviously, the IOC became a certain tool of influence or rather reflection of the world public opinion in the beginning of the twentieth century. It is necessary to note that the organization evolved at quite a moderate pace in the first part of the twentieth century. There was no definite list of sports and the hosting countries added some national sports to the Olympic agenda. In the beginning of the twentieth century fi rst National Olympic Committees (NOC) appeared. These organizations are subordinate to the IOC. These organizations have addressed specific questions like athletes who were to go to the games, etc.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Importantly, in the first part of the twentieth century only rich countries could afford participating in the Olympic Games. Thus, only some European countries, the USA, Canada could equip the athletes and take them to the venue. Countries of South America, Africa and Asia hardly participated in the Olympic Games until the 1960-1970s (Li et al. 2011). Hence, in 1960 the IOC created the Olympic Solidarity program that allowed countries to participate in the Olympic Games. Li et al. (2011) compare the IOC to such organization as the United Nations. The researchers note that the IOC has a charter â€Å"or constitution†, an anthem, a flag which are recognized as some of symbols of such entities as states or international organizations (Li et al. 2011, p. 223). These symbols were developed during the twentieth century. The organization acquired a particular structure in the twentieth century. It includes 25 commissions, which run specific issues and interact with each other, with NOCs and International Sport Federations. Thus, the organization became a structured entity which acquired quite considerable influence on the global scale. Functionalist theory It is essential to note that the IOC can be regarded as an illustration of the effectiveness of functionalist theory when it comes to the development of organizations. Thus, functionalist theory presupposes that all entities tend to be structured (Coakley et al. 2009). Proponents of the theory also claim that each part of the structure tends to contribute to the overall system. There is some kind of cooperation as all the part of the system agree to act so that the system benefits. Therefore, according to functionalist theory all systems inevitably evolve into perfectly structured entities. Admittedly, the IOC was a mediocre organization in the end of the nineteenth century. There were almost no subordinate structures and almost no regulations. The IOC was an idea rather than an organization. Soon it had its Charter which was guidance for the organization and subordinate bodies. The IOC was a creation of several nations in the beginning, but it evolved into a global structure which has penetrated into a variety of spheres of the contemporary life. The IOC can be regarded as an illustration of one of the postulates of the functionalist theory, i.e. all branches within structures have equal needs and benefit equally. To some extent, it could note that some organizations have structures, which presuppose flexibility, i.e. this, or that branch can gain more authority at different stages of the development of the organization. However, when it comes to the IOC, the structure of this organization is stable and is based on the principle of equality. There is a central body which coordinates subordinate branches. At that, the major aim of the IOC and all its subordinate organizations is to promote the Olympic Movement and all of these branches and subordinate organizations as well as the IOC e qually benefit from achieving this aim. Clearly, promotion of the Olympic Movement empowers the organization and each of its branches. However, functionalist theory cannot explain certain trends as it focuses on positive changes and development, but ignores conflicts which have been an indispensible part of the human life as well as development of any organization or society. The history of the IOC and conflict theory The conflict theory It is necessary to take a closer look at another social theory which can provide valuable insights into the development of the IOC. Conflict theory is based on the idea of a permanent conflict between underprivileged and privileged classes. In many cases, the conflict is restricted to the resources (Coakley et al. 2009). Proponents of this theory claim that people strive for resources, which results in change. The French Revolution can be regarded as an example of the conflict which led to creation of a brand new country. Poor people along with bour geoisie fought for resources which were in possession of the monarch and aristocrats. The conflict theory does address certain issues and can explain certain trends when it comes to the development of the IOC. For instance, inequality between genders could be characterised the IOC and the movement at different periods of their development. As has been mentioned above, only wealthy nations could participate in the Olympic Games in the nineteenth century and the first part of the twentieth century. Therefore, the IOC was, to certain extent, an organization for the privileged. Decolonization and development of societies changed this peculiarity of the organization. Apart from conflict related to financial privileges, the IOC was also characterised by specific attitude towards gender issues. Thus, women started participating in the Olympic Games on a regular basis only in the 1924 (Li et al. 2011). The organization did not promote gender equality in the very beginning of its history. On the contrary, at some points the organization promoted male domination at the Olympic Games. For instance, in 1954 the organization voted to â€Å"limit events for women† to events which are â€Å"particularly appropriate to the female sex† (Li et al. 2011, p. 236). However, women have struggled for their right to equally participate in the movement. Scandals The conflict characterized the IOC in the second part of the twentieth century and even in the twenty-first century. The movement was declining in the 1980s and 1990s. This was the period of scandals, tension and conflicts associated with the Olympic Games. In the 1990 were various conflicts among sponsors took place. For instance, one of the most remarkable conflicts was associated with basketball games in 1992. There was a conflict between the sponsors of the Olympic Games and the team’s sponsors (Li et al. 2011). Michael Jordan chose to cover logos of the then sponsor, Reebok, of the Olympic Games with the US flag as he did not want to be seen wearing logos of the competitor of his sponsor, Nike. This resulted in a new regulation which requires â€Å"all U.S. Olympic athletes† to wear the official apparel which is provided by the official sponsor of the Olympic Games â€Å"on the podium without exception† (Li et al. 2011, p. 231). As a result, the code of conduct was also amended. The new regulations were quite strict and forceful. The IOC management ensured an equal opportunities for sponsors. They also ensured respectful practices employed by sponsors. Again, conflict of economic forces came into play. The theory and the organization Coakley (2008) notes that sports are sometimes seen as a perfect example of domination of the strong over the weak. Therefore, the IOC promotes sports and should also be regarded as a promoter of domination. However, this is a bit extreme representation of sports. Admittedly, sport is the victory of the strong. Nonetheless, this victor y should not be seen as domination. The victory is manifestation of humans’ achievements. Moreover, one of the mottos of the Olympic Movement is that those participating in it are already winners. On the whole, it is necessary to point out that conflict theory does provide valuable insights into the development of the IOC. However, it touches upon marginal trends. The conflicts which have been a part of the organization and its history did not affect the organization’s aims and aspirations. The conflict did result in certain changes in the IOC and the Olympic Movement. Thus, women have obtained equal opportunities with males at Olympic Games. However, the major aim of the organization remained unchanged and it is development and promotion of the Olympic Movement in the world irrespective of gender, race, age, etc. Culture of the IOC and figurational theory Culture of the IOC The IOC has overcome the major issues and has evolved into an influential organization which ru ns one of the most significant movements in the beginning of the twenty-first century. Admittedly, there are still various issues to address. Thus, gender equity is still a problem to be solved. The IOC also addresses environmental issues. The organization binds countries to follow specific environmental standards when preparing facilities for the games. In fact, the country hosting the Olympic Games should be responsible in many respects and the organization controls construction of facilities making sure that all latest environmental norms and requirements are met (Zemel 2011). As has been mentioned above, it runs a variety of funds which support the process of sport development in various countries. Many accuse the organization of its commercialization. Some state that the organization has become an entity which has little to do with sport and is all about business and politics (Boudreau 2012). Admittedly, the IOC can hardly be seen as a purely sports organization. The organizati on should be seen as a body which incorporates sports into all spheres of people’s lives. Notably, the organization describes itself: As the â€Å"supreme authority† of the Olympic Movement, which supports a philosophy of life, in which the blending of sport and culture with art and education aims to combine in a balanced whole the human qualities of body, will, and mind. (Li et al. 2011, p. 233) Liu (2007) claims that the IOC has become a potent tool to struggle for human rights. As has been mentioned above, the IOC has exploited boycotts to encourage nations to adopt values proclaimed in such documents as Declaration of Human Rights. The attitude of the IOC towards South Africa is one of the most typical illustrations of the impact the organization has on the human societies. It is also important to note that the interrelations between media (television, to be more precise) and sports contribute greatly to the development of societies as well as spread of influences of the IOC (Kamberidou Patsadaras 2007). Now Olympic Movement is seen as something positive and encouraging. The movement helps nations promote healthy life styles. Admittedly, this helps the nations evolve. However, the interrelation is not confined to sport activities and living healthy lives. The IOC promotes ideas of equality (gender, racial, etc.), cooperation, tolerance, commitment, etc. Many researchers claim that interaction between the IOC and media also leads to commercialization of the Olympic Games and sports (Kamberidou Patsadaras 2007). Notably, commercialization has become a characteristic feature of the contemporary world so sports, being a part of the contemporary society, could not be left aside. After all, development of sports and sport organizations is a reflection of the development of society to a great extent. Figurational theory All these elements of the organization’s structure confirm that there is room for the figurational theory which can comple te the analysis. Thus, according to proponents of the theory, everything is interconnected and interdependent in the society (Coakley et al. 2009). Nations interact and develop. Sport affects societies and societies influence sport, which leads to the constant change. Admittedly, the development of the IOC can be regarded as an illustration of the major postulates of the proponents of the theory. When the organization was created, it was a union of a group of people who decided to run certain sports events. However, commercialization of the world affected the organization which has become one of the most significant businesses in the world (Boudreau 2012). The organization, in its turn, is affecting societies. In the first place, the organization promotes the Olympic Movement, development of sports and healthy life style. The organization also provides financial support to some nations. The IOC initiates a variety of programs in Africa, South America and Asia to promote development of sports: sport schools are being built, talented youth obtain the opportunity to study in developed countries, etc. The IOC also provides financial supports to national committees. This aid enables countries to send their teams to the Olympic Games. Therefore, interaction and interconnection are obvious, so the figurational theory is applicable. However, the figurational theory does not answer one of the main questions people ask. It does not explain why this interaction occurs. Thus, it is possible to state that figurational theory is descriptive in character. Conclusion On balance, the history and culture of the IOC can be considered in terms of several social theories. Functionalist, conflict and figurational theories can be applicable. However, these theories address different aspects (and even stages) of the development of organization. At present, many people focus on commercialisation of the organization and the overall Olympic movement. Many state that the organization is becoming a conventional example in terms of the conflict theory. The organization is believed to struggle for power and influence in various spheres of people’s life. However, the conflict theory can hardly be applicable even if when it comes to commercialization. Thus, the major aims of the organization remain unchanged: the IOC is promoting healthy life style and the Olympic Movement. There are no meaningful conflicts within the organization. By meaningful conflicts, significant conflicts which affect the organization’s aims, principles and objectives are meant. Commercialization of the organization can be regarded as one of the means to achieve the major objectives of the IOC. Notably, there are certain conflicts within the organization as it is constituted by individuals having different cultural backgrounds. Sometimes these conflicts result in introduction of specific policies applicable in this or that case. However, the organization itself has not been changed b y the conflicts. The conflicts within the organization resulted in changes in society rather than in the organization. Thus, conflicts of political views of different members of the IOC often resulted in boycotts of certain state policies (in case with Nazi Germany or South Africa). Of course, it is impossible to state that these policies alone led to positive changes in societies, but these policies have become one of the factors that affected the development of this or that society. Gender conflicts within the IOC have also contributed to the actual liberation of women. Nonetheless, as has been mentioned above, the major principles of equality and development of the Olympic Movement which have been characteristic features of the organization never changed. The organization as well as each of its branches strived for balance and development which proves relevance of functionalist theory when it comes to such organization as the IOC. Reference List Boudreau, J 2012, ‘Olympics global in economic impact: $7 billion in direct spending estimated’, Calgary Herald. Web. Coakley, J 2008, Sports in society: issues and controversies, McGraw Hill, Sydney, Australia. Coakley, JJ, Hallinan, C, Jackson, S Mewett, P 2009, Sports in society: issues and controversies in Australia and New Zealand, McGraw Hill, Sydney, Australia. Kamberidou, I Patsadaras, N 2007, ‘A new concept in European sport governance: sport as social capital’, Journal of Biology of Exercise 3.1, pp. 21-34. Li, M, MacIntosh, EW Gonzalo, B 2011, International Sport Management, Human Kinetics, Lower Mitcham, South Australia. Liu, JH 2007, ‘Lighting the torch of human rights: the Olympic Games as a vehicle for human rights reform’, Northwestern Journal of International Human Rights 5.2, pp. 213-235. Nauright, J 2012, Sports around the world, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, CA. Zemel, M 2011, ‘How powerful is the IOC? – Let’s talk about the environmentâ₠¬â„¢, Chicago-Kent Journal of Environment and Energy Law 1.2, pp. 173-220. This report on International Olympic Committee: History, Culture and Social Theory was written and submitted by user Junior Hoover to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

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Definition and Examples of Prewriting Strategies

Definition and Examples of Prewriting Strategies In composition, the term prewriting refers to  any activity that helps a writer think about a topic, determine a purpose, analyze an audience, and prepare to write. Prewriting is closely related to the art of invention in classical rhetoric. The objective of  prewriting, according to Roger Caswell and Brenda Mahler, is  to prepare students for writing by allowing them to discover what they know and what else they need to know. Prewriting invites exploration and promotes the motivation to write (Strategies for Teaching Writing, 2004). Because various kinds of writing (such as note-taking,  listing, and freewriting) usually occur during this stage of the writing process, the term  prewriting  is somewhat misleading. A number of teachers and researchers prefer the term exploratory writing. See Examples and Observations below. Also, see: Writing ProcessComposingDiscovery Strategies (Heuristics)FocusingGeorge Carlin on Finding Something to Write AboutYour Writing: Private and Public Types of Prewriting Activities BrainstormingClusteringFreewriting Journalists QuestionsJournal WritingListingOutlinePentadReading Examples and Observations Prewriting is  the getting ready to write stage. The traditional notion that writers have a topic completely thought out and ready to flow onto the page is ridiculous. Writers begin tentatively- talking, reading, brainstorming- to see what they know and in what direction they want to go. -Gail Tompkins, Rod Campbell, and David Green,  Literacy for the 21st Century. Pearson Australia, 2010Prewriting involves anything you do to help yourself decide what your central idea is or what details, examples, reasons, or content you will include. Freewriting, brainstorming, and clustering . . . are types of prewriting. Thinking, talking to other people, reading related material, outlining or organizing ideas- all are forms of prewriting. Obviously, you can prewrite at any time in the writing process. Whenever you want to think up new material, simply stop what you are doing and start using one of [these] techniques... -Stephen McDonald and William Salomone, The Writers Response, 5th ed. Wad sworth, 2012 The Aims of PrewritingUsually, the prewriting activities help you find a good topic, narrow topics that are too broad, and look at purpose. You should finish the prewriting activities with at least a sentence and a list. Or you may have something as formal as a three-part thesis sentence and a fully developed outline. Either way, youll have laid the groundwork. -Sharon Sorenson, Websters New World Student Writing Handbook. Wiley, 2010 Prewriting as a Method of DiscoveryJeannette Harris stresses prewriting while stating that discovery occurs throughout the composing process, even in revision, when the writer is still retrieving additional information, making further connections, recognizing emerging patterns [Expressive Discourse, 15]. In prewriting as well as free-writing and keeping journals, ideas and forms are discovered by provoking memory. In addition, the personal nature of much prewriting and freewriting serve as an affirmation that the memory of the student writer has a valid place in the writing classroom. -Janine Rider, The Writers Book of Memory: An Interdisciplinary Study for Writing Teachers. Routledge, 1995 Prewriting and Revising[P]rewriting plans are not carved in stone; they are simply tools for generating and organizing ideas. Writers frequently change their minds as they write, eliminating some details, adding and changing others. Thats why some writers say that prewriting is a misnomer; they return to their plans over and over during all stages of the writing process, often revising and adjusting the plans as they go. -Lori Jamison Rog,  Marvelous Minilessons for Teaching Intermediate Writing. International Reading Association, 2011

Server Virtualization Paper Term Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

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Can We Attain Happiness Without God Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Can We Attain Happiness Without God - Essay Example They perceive that the attainment of the happiness is dependent on the attainment of the presence of God in our lives in certain manner. The religious teachings and the normal points of the view differ in achievement of the happiness. A majority of the religions speak of the importance of God as the primal force behind the attainment of the happiness. There are a number of prominent philosophers, like Aristotle; who have propagated that happiness is a state of mind. This forms the base of the contradictory nature of the definition of happiness. The Christian teachings place a lot of importance on the seeking of God as a means of happiness (Milton 179). This can be attributed to the basic view of God as a driving force of this universe. This also emanates from the fact that God as seen as an omnipotent being who does well to all. This essential property qualifies him as a quintessential source of happiness. The contemporary philosophers like Voltaire have pointed to the material natur e of happiness (Olson 201). They also argue that happiness is a state of the mind. Some have an external locus of happiness, as for example, the material possessions, money, clothes and wife. For some others, it is internal in nature. After a thorough analysis of all the points, I concur with the view of the faith, that God gives us happiness. It is of likelihood to me as it puts the onus of happiness to a greater power. This rests the grail of happiness in a power that is bigger than us, better than us, more intelligent than us and ultimately makes happiness seem more attainable. VIRTUES Virtue is a kind of moral excellence. The denomination of virtue is positive and renders a sense of inherent goodness in any human being. They serve as the cornerstone of the development of any person. They are inherent to the development of the greatness of any individual. This can also be termed as the pattern of the thought in all the individuals. The virtues can be considered as a subset of the values. The values are the base of the system of the operations of a person. If the values are maintained in the proper way, that leads to an all-round development of the individual. There is a classification of the virtues, which tend to divide the virtues into a number of tangible patterns. The established literature talks about two kinds of virtues, one is the Kantian virtue; the other is the Aristotle kind of the virtue. Aristotle values mention a list of values. They are temperance, the practice of justice, the practice of liberality, magnificence, the pride (being aware of the achievements of self and not being pompous), gentleness and a few other qualities. These are the general list of the virtues that are common to the literature. Aristotle has suggested the practice of the moderation in all the virtues. This shall help in the attainment of the needs of all the humans. Everything must be practiced in the right kind of the moderation for the attainment of the goals. This he lps in the development of the fundamental nature of humans at any point of time. One of the examples is the use of the moderation over the thinking. There is the need to practice middle path by not getting too anxious about anything, while maintaining the seriousness of any situation. I believe in the practice of the virtues, as they would help us in becoming better humans. It would also allow us to gain a

Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness Through a Freudian Lens Essay

Without personal access to authors, readers are left to themselves to interpret literature. This can become challenging with more difficult texts, such as Joseph Conrad’s novella Heart of Darkness. Fortunately, literary audiences are not abandoned to flounder in pieces such as this; active readers may look through many different lenses to see possible meanings in a work. For example, Conrad’s Heart of Darkness may be deciphered with a post-colonial, feminist, or archetypal mindset, or analyzed with Freudian psycho-analytic theory. The latter two would effectively reveal the greater roles of Kurtz and Marlow as the id and the ego, respectively, and offer the opportunity to draw a conclusion about the work as a whole. Sigmund Freud’s theories on the construction of the mind are simple, but fundamentally changed the field of psychology. He proposed, among other things, that the human mind is composed of three parts: the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. The preconscious consists of information, such as a telephone number, that is â€Å"accessible to consciousness without emotional resistance† (Schellenberg 21). In Freud’s estimation, the unconscious is the most important area of the mind. The information stored within it has â€Å"very strong resistances† to becoming conscious (Freud 32). Residing in the unconscious is the id, which â€Å"contains everything†¦that is present at birth†¦ – above all, therefore, the instincts which originate from somatic organization† (14). From birth, all action is instinctual, from the id. The id recognizes and entertains no desires but its own and is impatient to have its needs met. This phase lasts until a part of the id changes â€Å"under the influence of the real external world† (14). This changed portion b... ...o, while the novella’s archetypal structure glorifies Marlow’s domination of Kurtz. These two analyses taken together provide a much fuller and more comprehensive interpretation of the work. Conrad presents the idea that there is some darkness within each person. The darkness is is inherited and instinctual, but because it is natural does not make it right. He celebrates – and thereby almost advises – the turn from instinct. By telling Marlow’s tale, Joseph Conrad stresses to his audience the importance of self-knowledge and the unnecessity of instinct in civilization. Works Cited Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness. New York: Penguin Group, 1997. Freud, Sigmund. An Outline of Psycho-Analysis. Trans. James Strachey. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1949. Schellenberg, James A. Masters of Social Psychology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978. Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness Through a Freudian Lens Essay Without personal access to authors, readers are left to themselves to interpret literature. This can become challenging with more difficult texts, such as Joseph Conrad’s novella Heart of Darkness. Fortunately, literary audiences are not abandoned to flounder in pieces such as this; active readers may look through many different lenses to see possible meanings in a work. For example, Conrad’s Heart of Darkness may be deciphered with a post-colonial, feminist, or archetypal mindset, or analyzed with Freudian psycho-analytic theory. The latter two would effectively reveal the greater roles of Kurtz and Marlow as the id and the ego, respectively, and offer the opportunity to draw a conclusion about the work as a whole. Sigmund Freud’s theories on the construction of the mind are simple, but fundamentally changed the field of psychology. He proposed, among other things, that the human mind is composed of three parts: the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. The preconscious consists of information, such as a telephone number, that is â€Å"accessible to consciousness without emotional resistance† (Schellenberg 21). In Freud’s estimation, the unconscious is the most important area of the mind. The information stored within it has â€Å"very strong resistances† to becoming conscious (Freud 32). Residing in the unconscious is the id, which â€Å"contains everything†¦that is present at birth†¦ – above all, therefore, the instincts which originate from somatic organization† (14). From birth, all action is instinctual, from the id. The id recognizes and entertains no desires but its own and is impatient to have its needs met. This phase lasts until a part of the id changes â€Å"under the influence of the real external world† (14). This changed portion b... ...o, while the novella’s archetypal structure glorifies Marlow’s domination of Kurtz. These two analyses taken together provide a much fuller and more comprehensive interpretation of the work. Conrad presents the idea that there is some darkness within each person. The darkness is is inherited and instinctual, but because it is natural does not make it right. He celebrates – and thereby almost advises – the turn from instinct. By telling Marlow’s tale, Joseph Conrad stresses to his audience the importance of self-knowledge and the unnecessity of instinct in civilization. Works Cited Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness. New York: Penguin Group, 1997. Freud, Sigmund. An Outline of Psycho-Analysis. Trans. James Strachey. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1949. Schellenberg, James A. Masters of Social Psychology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.

Legalize anabolic steroids

SummaryThere is a huge national concern over the misuse and abuse of anabolic steroids for enhancement of muscular stature and performance among competitive athletes.   Latest estimates have shown that approximately 5% of all high school students have used anabolic steroids, with almost half of the high students believing that these drugs are not harmful to their health.   Drug enforcement legislations have included anabolic steroids in its list of traffic-controlled substances (21 USC Sec. 801 1/22/02; Schedule III).   However, the bigger picture of the medical and research benefits of anabolic drugs have been overlooked due to the sensationalize media coverage of these drugs.   Current scientific researches are still inconclusive on whether anabolic steroids are extremely unsafe for administration, opposite to what has been actively claimed by anti-drug officials and government authorities.DatesThe Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 1990 (ASCA) was established to regulate the distribution of anabolic steroids in the United States.   The Drug Enforcement Administration of the U.S. Department of Justice has been mandated to implement measures to protect the people from these dangerous drugs.   A four-part definition of anabolic steroids serves as a blueprint to identify any analogues of the chemical substance that may be uncontrollably dispensed to athletes and other youths.The definition included substances that are chemically and pharmacologically similar to testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, as well as a very close likeness in its enhancement for muscle growth.   The Act classified anabolic steroids in the same category as barbiturates and LSD precursors and claim that these substances result in dangerous effects to the human body.   The Act declares that any individual caught in the possession of these anabolic steroids will be arrested and prosecuted.   The list of anabolic steroids in the Act are continuously being updated, as new versio ns of these drugs are progressively being created through the years.AddressesDrug Enforcement AdministrationU.S. Department of JusticeWashington, D.C.   20038-8083SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATIONBackgroundAnabolic androgenic steroids are testosterone derivatives that are mainly used for muscle and performance enhancement.   These drugs are frequently used by competitive athletes in order to achieve an edge or better control of their physical strength and performance during professional sports games.   Retrospective surveys indicated that anabolic steroids have been used since the 1960s to date (Duchaine, 1983), with current national user rates ranging from 3% to 9% among high school students alone.   The exact effect of anabolic steroids in the developing human body has not been fully studied, and the increase in number of reports of teenage athletes committing suicide has called the attention of the legislation to assess and review drug enforcement laws covering this specific drug .It has been reported that the prolonged use of anabolic steroids have may cause a number of adverse effects to the human body, including liver damage, gynecomastia, atherogenesis, psychiatric disorders such as aggression and violence, and even death (Balbigian, 2001; Brower, 2002; Glazer, 1991; Pope and Katz, 1990; Malone et al. 1995).   Investigations on the nationwide use of anabolic steroids have prompted Congress to establish the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 1990, which mainly indicates that the non-medical employment of anabolic steroids is punishable by law.   Any violations will be penalized by at least 15 days to 5 years imprisonment and/or $1,000 to $1,000,000 fine, depending on the extent of the violation.   So far, the general public has supported the Anabolic Steroid Control Act, mostly due to the massive and militant media coverage of the topic.However, the actual negative effects of the use of anabolic steroidal drugs have not been comprehensively investigate d to date, and that the reports that have been disclosed in the media have been isolated cases picked out from millions of cases of teenage users around the United States.   Scientifically, the adverse effects from the prolonged use of anabolic steroids remain inconclusive to date, and in actuality, anabolic steroid use has been shown to be beneficial in the treatment of medical disorders.In one report, it has lately been determined that the effect of an anabolic steroid to the treatment of weight loss in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients is equivalently effective and safe as compared to the commonly administered recombinant growth hormone that has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (Storer et al. 2005).   In another scenario, the administration of an anabolic steroid has been beneficial in prostate cancer patients by preventing further migration of prostate cancer cells to other parts of the body (Guerini et al. 2005).   The anabolic steroid oxandrolone has been successfully used in the treatment of muscle loss in patients diagnosed with Duchenne muscular dystrophy and may be a potential powerful candidate for general treatment of such types of patients (Balagopal et al. 2006).Scientific research shows that anabolic steroids provide more beneficial effects than what has been claimed by legislation as serious, adverse effects to the human body.   More so, the negative reports that have associated with the use of anabolic steroids have not been investigated scientifically and have only achieved much attention through the help of media and press coverage.   Therefore, it is imperative that the legislative bodies review the restrictions associated with the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 1990 and fully determine the actual effects of anabolic steroid intake.   It is regretful to know that there are other drugs and activities that are much more deleterious or harmful to people but are not actively controlled by the Sen ate, including smoking, cosmetic surgery and over-the-counter drugs such as aspirin and ibuprofen, which has caused even more cases of deaths and hospitalizations that anabolic steroids.The Proposed RuleBased on the above information on the current status, knowledge and use of anabolic steroids, we would like to propose that anabolic steroids be legalized for use in the United States.   In turn, we would like to emphasize the need for further scientific research to determine the mechanisms of action of each type of anabolic drug to gain a better understanding of its indications and contraindications.   There should be a comprehensive survey on the frequency of use of anabolic steroids across the human population, with stratified categories of users such as teenage athletes, geriatric patients, cancer patients, and so on.   Any cases that report any adverse effect from use of anabolic steroids should be properly documented and analyzed.   Should there be sufficient reason tha t anabolic steroids be stopped from circulation in the community, we are willing to review these effects once significant information has been gathered from reliable reports.Legal ConsiderationsAs the use of anabolic steroids is legalized, we in turn, propose that a nationwide surveillance program on the use of anabolic steroids be implemented by the Drug Enforcement Administration, as a measurement tool on the exact effects on the use of these substances.   The information that will be gathered will be integrated into an national anabolic steroid database for analysis and interpretation.   All anabolic steroid cases will be included in the database, including any advantages, disadvantages or no visible effects that may be related to the intake of this drug.The surveillance program will be conducted for 2 years, of which at its culmination, will be evaluated and further amendments will be based on the results of the analysis and interpretation of this database.   Such survey w ill provide a better understanding of the effects of anabolic steroid use, which will be more reliable, robust and scientific, and we will not have to depend on influences or propaganda from the media or other government officials.ReferencesBabigian A, Silverman RT (2001): Management of gynecomastia due to use of anabolic steroids in bodybuilders. Plast. Reconstr. Surg.   107:240–242.Balagopal P, Olney R, Darmaun D, Mougey E, Dokler M, Sieck G and Hammond D (2006):   Oxandrolone enhances skeletal muscle myosin synthesis and alters global gene expression profile in Duchenne muscular dystrophy.   Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 290:E530–E539.Brower KJ   (2002): Anabolic steroid abuse and dependence. Curr. Psychiatry Rep.   4:377–383.Duchaine D., ed. (1983):   Underground Steroid Handbook, 1st Ed. California: HLR Technical Books, 84pp.Glazer G (1991): Atherogenic effects of anabolic steroids on serum lipid levels. Arch. Intern. Med. 151:1925–1 933.Guerini V, Sau D, Scaccianoce E, Rusmini P, Ciana P, Maggi A, Martini PGV, Katzenellenbogen BS, Martini L, Motta M and Poletti A (2005):   The androgen derivative 5ÃŽ ±-androstane-3ÃŽ ²,17ÃŽ ²-diol inhibits prostate cancer cell migration through activation of the estrogen receptor ÃŽ ² subtype.   Cancer Res.   65(12):5445-5453.Malone DA Jr, Dimeff R, Lombardo JA, Sample BRH (1995): Psychiatric effects and psychoactive substance use in anabolic-androgenic steroid users. Clin. J. Sports Med. 5:25–31.Pope HG Jr. and Katz DL (1990): Homicide and near-homicide by anabolic steroid users. J. Clin. Psychiatry   51:28–31.Storer TW, Woodhouse LJ, Sattler F, Singh FB, Schroeder ET, Beck K, Padero MC, Mac P, Yarasheski KE, Geurts P, Willemsen A, Harms MK and and Bhasin S   (2005):   A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of nandrolone decanoate in human   immunodeficiency virus-infected men with mild to moderate weight loss with recombinant human growth hormone a s active reference treatment.   J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.   90(8):4474–4482.